Losser, who taught for 10 years in upper elementary grades, said she makes assignments with one student as the leader; one as the recorder; one who makes sure everyone stays on task; and one who is the "checker," a job requiring the student ensure all other group members understand the lesson by making each explain it or by quizzing them.

Before groups begin their work, they spend about 30 minutes creating a team name, a team handshake and other bonding activities. Members of each group may, for instance, describe what they did over the weekend or share an embarrassing story.

"That increases their concern for each other," Losser said. "They want each other to succeed." Losser noticed that attendance increased when she began cooperative learning in her elementary school classrooms.

She also began implementing cooperative learning groups when she noticed a particular class struggling with listening skills or putting each other down.

The Johnsons recommend teachers circle classrooms and interact with students to prevent one student from controlling the situation or another from freeloading.

They recommend a "reflection" time for students to consider how they interacted as a group, which can result in more productive cooperative learning in the future.

"Throughout much of history, cooperative learning has dominated schools," David Johnson said.

Cooperative learning was necessary for teachers in one-room classrooms. It was used in American schools through the 1800s and up to the 1930s.

"Suddenly, people got the idea that school should be competitive," David Johnson said.

Competitive learning has its roots in social Darwinism — survival by the intellectually fittest.

Individualistic learning became popular in the 1960s and 1970s, illustrated by "individual learning stations" in classrooms.

Cooperative learning was revitalized in the 1980s, Johnson said.

"When Reagan came into office, part of his wanting to close the Department of Education, (he asked) after all these millions and millions you've spent on education research, what do you actually know?" Johnson said. "They spent almost nothing on cooperative learning because it wasn't part of the mainstream, but after looking at the literature, it's one thing we know for sure, it works."

Cooperative learning is not reasonable all the time, David Johnson said. For instance, spelling tests should be individual, although students prepare for spelling tests by studying in groups.

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E-mail: lhancock@desnews.com